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1. Measurement of streamflow

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The measurement of streamflow, or discharge, is one of the most important aspects of practical hydrology. Because continuous direct measurement of streamflow is highly difficult and time-consuming, engineers universally adopt a two-step procedure: First, a relationship between the water surface elevation (called stage ) and the discharge is established. Second, the stage of the stream is observed routinely, and the discharge is estimated using the previously determined stage-discharge relationship (rating curve). To build this relationship, stage must be measured alongside discharge. Stage is defined as the water-surface elevation measured above a specific datum. It is measured using manual gauges, such as staff gauges (vertical, inclined, or sectional) and wire gauges , or via automatic recorders like the float-gauge recorder and bubble gauge . The techniques for determining stream discharge are broadly classified into two categories: Direct determination and Indirect deter...
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2. Factors affecting streamflow

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The factors affecting streamflow—particularly the relationship between the water surface elevation (stage) and the discharge—are primarily driven by changes in the channel's "control" section. When this relationship changes over time, it is referred to as a shifting control . The major factors that alter and affect streamflow at a given cross-section include: Physical Channel Changes: The physical characteristics of the river channel can change due to natural or artificial interventions. Factors such as weed growth , dredging operations , or channel encroachment can significantly alter how water flows through a section. Aggradation and Degradation: In alluvial rivers (rivers with movable beds), the flow is heavily affected by sediment transport. Aggradation (the deposition of sediment) or degradation (the scouring or erosion of the riverbed) actively changes the cross-sectional area and the stream's flow dynamics. Variable Backwater Effects: Streamflow at a...
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